A high-sensitivity search for very distant planets in the solar system reveals a lack of rogue planets and other features common in other planetary systems. This remarkable circumstance allows our solar system to manifest a benign environment for enduring advanced life and suggests the involvement of an intentional Designer.

A rogue planet on a collision course with Earth is something science-fiction stories have in common with doomsday theories (such as the 2012 Mayan calendar prophecies). Astronomy, however, has revealed nothing to lend credence to these fantastical scenarios. Researchers had used powerful telescopes to rule out the existence of any planet the size of Mars or greater within 7 billion miles of Earth and any planet the size of Jupiter or greater within 100 billion miles.¹ (For comparison, Neptune orbits the Sun at a mean distance of 2.8 billion miles.)

While these findings may provide reassurance for those developing investment strategies for their grandchildren, it is quite another matter when attempting to use very distant planets to understand the stability of advanced life over the past several million years. Some astronomers have hypothesized that an extremely distant planet in the solar system may be responsible for causing the mass extinction events noted in the fossil record (such events took place at regular intervals throughout a 27-million-year period).² To address these considerations, astronomer Kevin Luhman analyzed the database from the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer satellite to search for possible thermal emission signals from gas giant planets and brown dwarfs that may be lurking in the outer limits of the solar system.³ (Brown dwarfs are bodies ranging in size from 12–75 Jupiter masses.)

Luhman determined that no planet the size of Saturn or greater exists within 2.6 trillion miles (0.44 light-years) of the Sun and no planet the size of Jupiter or greater exists within 7.6 trillion miles (1.30 light-years).⁴ Such a stringent limit on distant solar system bodies effectively rules out the possibility that a distant planet could be responsible for the mass extinction events noted in the fossil record.

This limit also implies that, over the past several million years, advanced animals on Earth have been relatively undisturbed by events in the extreme outer realms of the solar system. One can only hope this limit will also put an end to speculations that a hypothesized Planet X will bring about the end of civilization or usher in the apocalyptic events prophesied in Scripture.

A Unique Planetary System

Such a lack of large planets and brown dwarfs may be an exceptional feature for planetary systems. In spite of the fact that planets orbiting at great distances from their stars are extremely difficult to detect, astronomers have found a substantial number.⁵ Researchers have also discovered several free-floating planets and brown dwarfs (bodies unattached to any star).⁶

Large planets cannot form at great distances from their stars because the circumstellar disks from which they form do not extend far enough. However, the nearly ubiquitous high-eccentricity orbits observed for exoplanets located more than a 100 million miles from their host stars (Earth’s distance from the Sun = 92.8 million miles; see the exoplanet catalog) implies that many planets will be ejected from their planetary systems. Given the expected large population of ejected planets, there exists a high likelihood that many stars will capture these free-floating bodies into very wide orbits.⁷

Our solar system’s lack of planets with high-eccentricity orbits, lack of wide orbit planets, and lack of any large body within a light-year of the Sun all suggests that our planetary neighborhood is special. At RTB, we propose that the uniqueness of our solar system indicates that it was designed intentionally, in order to make possible the existence of enduring advanced life on Earth. We can thank God that the closest we’ll be to a rogue planet is the pages of a sci-fi novel. (RTB)

*** Will Myers

A report in a recent Astrophysical Journal issue reveals that astronomers have used measurements of unprecedented accuracy for the primordial deuterium abundance to double check the values of the cosmic expansion rate and the fraction of the universe made up of ordinary matter. Knowledge of these parameters’ values enables astronomers to build a detailed cosmic origins model that can be compared with the Bible’s claims about the universe’s beginning and history.

In 1994, I wrote an article for Christianity Today describing how astronomers had found “the Holy Grail of cosmology.”¹ That is, they had determined the proportion of the universe comprised of ordinary matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) by analyzing high-sensitivity maps of the temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). This determination yielded the best scientific evidence to date that the universe arose from a big bang event, a scenario that aligns with ancient biblical descriptions of the origin of the cosmos.²

In light of the fact that scientists have values for the cosmic expansion rate and the fraction of ordinary matter in the universe (and that improved CMBR maps have produced improved calculations), recent attempts to obtain these same values from measurements of primordial helium and deuterium may seem unnecessary. However, primordial abundance measurements provide astronomers with a much-needed second set of calculations, based on different physical principles and using different detection instruments, with which they can independently check the values of these cosmological parameters and eliminate possible instrumental biases.

Deuterium, a nucleus comprised of one proton and one neutron, especially interests cosmologists. Unlike helium, deuterium was produced only during the first few minutes of cosmic history when hydrogen (the one existing element) was partly fused into helium-4, helium-3, deuterium, and a trace amount of lithium-7. The mass fraction of helium-4 produced depends on how rapidly the universe expanded from the cosmic creation event, while the mass fraction of deuterium depends on the proportion of ordinary matter in the universe.

Observing the primordial deuterium abundance has proven to be a very tricky business. Deuterium spectral lines are much weaker than helium spectral lines—plus, stellar burning has consumed a substantial amount of primordial deuterium. Astronomers must observe gas clouds far enough away that the look-back times predate any significant stellar burning—yet such great distances mean that deuterium spectral lines will be extremely weak. But now, by using the world’s largest telescopes, a dedicated group of astronomers has overcome the hurdles.

Challenges to Observing Deuterium

The primordial abundances refer to the quantities of helium and deuterium extant before any significant stellar burning occurred. Once stars start burning nuclear fuel, they produce helium and consume deuterium. Thus, measurements of the primordial abundances yield the values of important cosmological parameters while measurements at various epochs since star formation onset give astronomers a detailed picture of the history and locations of star formation and stellar burning for the universe in general and the Milky Way Galaxy in particular. Such a picture has important ramifications for establishing the degree of galactic fine-tuning needed for the existence of advanced life.

Initially, astronomers attempted to measure the primordial deuterium abundance in distant quasars. It became clear, however, that even in distant quasars stellar burning was not a trivial factor. Astronomers then turned to damped Lyman-alpha (DLA) systems, huge clouds of dense gas in the earliest stages of collapsing to form galaxies. Such systems typically contain only a small number of newly formed stars and thus consumption of deuterium by stellar burning is close to zero. The problem here is that DLA systems emit undetectable light levels, which limits astronomers to observing DLA systems in absorption (that is, observing the degree to which a DLA system absorbs light from a background quasar).

First Observation Attempts

The first serious attempt to measure the primordial deuterium abundance was made in 2001. Using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers Max Pettini and David Bowen observed a DLA system 10.60 billion light-years away, which yielded Ω_bh² = 0.025±0.001,³ Ω_b where is the fraction of the universe comprised of ordinary matter and h = 100 divided by the value of Hubble’s constant (the cosmic expansion rate) in kilometers per second per megaparsec (1 megaparsec = 3,258,000 light-years). However, Pettini and Bowen faced uncertainties in determining the abundance of elements in the system heavier than lithium (a measure of the amount of stellar burning that has occurred).

A decade later, Pettini and astronomer Ryan Cooke used the Very Large Telescope(the world’s largest optical telescope) to measure deuterium in a DLA system 11.61 billion light-years away in which the density of elements heavier than lithium was just one percent of the solar value,⁴ putting the loss of deuterium by stellar burning at an insignificant level. Pettini and Cooke’s observations produced a value for Ω_bh² = 0.0223±0.0009.⁵

Success at Last

Now, in 2014, Cooke and Pettini, together with three other colleagues, have published results of their observations of deuterium in a DLA system 11.70 billion light-years away in which the density of elements heavier than lithium is a scant 0.13 percent of the solar value.⁶ Their derived value for Ω_bh² = 0.02202±0.00046.⁷ This is the first time that a measurement of Ω_bh² based on deuterium has delivered comparable precision to those based on CMBR maps.

The best measures of Ω_bh² from maps of the CMBR are 0.02205±0.00028 from the Planck Collaboration⁸ and 0.02243±0.00055 from the WMAP team.⁹ Using the best-determined value of h = 68.30±0.81,¹⁰ these measures translate into the following estimates of the proportion of ordinary matter in the universe: 4.72 (Cooke et al.), 4.73 (Planck), and 4.81 (WMAP) percent.

The remarkable consistency in these measurements delivers yet another evidence for big bang cosmology, which, in turn, strengthens the case for the biblical account of creation. The Bible describes several key characteristics of a big bang universe, including a singular beginning of matter, energy, space, and time, ongoing cosmic expansion, and constant laws of physics including a pervasive law of decay, but leaves many other details, such as the rate of cosmic expansion and the mass of the universe, for us to measure. Once again, research continues to affirm the correspondence between the biblical description of the universe and the best scientific understanding of the universe. (RTB)

*** Will Myers

From Calvin Staats in British Columbia (submitted via Facebook):

As far as I know the big bang has only been defined or thought of as an expansion or explosion of all matter from a singularity. Do you envision this as all matter compressed into a tiny space with a huge mass? For some reason I’ve been inclined (the thought keeps popping into my mind) to also accept…that all matter started from a singularity as large as all things combined.…I imagine dark matter or dark energy imposing itself into the equilibrium of this huge mass, setting and controlling the rate and order of movement of what we see today throughout the cosmos. I guess this could apply to a tiny space as well. What law would dictate further regression implying matter to compress further to a tiny area?

I wonder if you could put me out of my misery on this issue with a short answer or any comment(s) you may have. Thank you and may God continue to bless you.

****

Calvin, one of the tenets of the standard inflationary hot big bang model is that at the beginning of the universe all matter, energy, space, and time was compressed into an infinitely, or near infinitely, small volume. However, at this high compression point, matter, energy, space, and time are not separate entities. The basic picture is that the universe begins with nine highly compressed space dimensions that all expand from the cosmic creation event. At 10^-43 seconds after the creation event, six of the nine dimensions stop expanding. Shortly thereafter, the continuing release of space curvature, as a result of cosmic expansion, leads to the production of photons (electromagnetic energy). Subsequent to photon production, an ongoing cosmic expansion leads to the production of massive particles. By the time the universe is a billionth of a second old, space, time, matter, and energy become separate entities that continue to influence one another.

Dr. Hugh Ross

Reasons to Believe emerged from my passion to research, develop, and proclaim the most powerful new reasons to believe in Christ as Creator, Lord, and Savior and to use those new reasons to reach people for Christ. Read more about Dr. Hugh Ross.

“Let the Truth be Told.” Radical Darwin Evolutionist believe that the universe has no beginning. They also believe that everything came into being by a series of random events. Of course, Creationist (belief that God created the universe, Genesis) believe that the universe including all life has a beginning with purpose.

*** Will Myers

Data from rovers continue to build strong evidence for transient periods of liquid water in local regions early in Mars’s history. Furthermore, those water environments likely contained the chemical ingredients and conditions that could provide a habitat for certain types of life. However, the transient, local nature of Mars’s “habitable” environments serves to highlight the unexpectedly long and global nature of Earth’s habitability. Such results comport well with the idea that an intelligent Designer fashioned Earth to host life.

The year was 1996. Scientists announced the results of an investigation that led to claims of past life on Mars. But in the discussions following this exciting announcement researchers concluded that the evidence did not support the claim.

Nearly 20 years later the conversation continues with increased data gathered by instruments driving across the surface of the Red Planet. Given the difficulty of finding ancient microbial life here on Earth, scientists seeking evidence of life-friendly conditions on Mars look for signs of liquid water, the basic chemical components required for life (C, H, N, O, P, S), and chemical energy gradients necessary for metabolism. Definitive evidence for or against extraterrestrial life remains elusive—but a body of data affirms that liquid water (and other ingredients required for life) existed early in Mars’s history.

Rover Reports

In January 2004, two rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, landed on Mars for a three-month exploration mission. Although communications with Spirit ceased in 2011, Opportunitycontinues exploring the Martian surface and reporting back to NASA to this day. Since August 2011, those explorations have focused on the Endeavour Crater, an impact basin 14 miles across. The impact that created it excavated Mars’s surface layers during the Noachian period approximately 3.7 to 4.1 billion years ago, which corresponds to the time of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

A recent paper published by the Spirit and Opportunity team shows evidence of liquid water existing on Mars during the Noachian period. The evidence includes fine-grained layered rock, calcium sulfate veins cutting through the rock layers, and aluminum-rich clay materials in rock fractures.¹ All three observations indicate flowing, liquid water before and after the crater’s formation. Furthermore, in contrast to studies of younger rock formations that show much higher acidity, recent analysis of Mars’s past aqueous environment indicates only a slightly acidic to neutral pH—a more favorable environment for prebiotic chemistry.

The larger and more capable Curiosity rover (which landed on Mars in August 2012) found corroborating evidence from the other side of Mars in the Gale Crater (formed approximately 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago). According to a paper by the Curiosityteam, the Yellowknife Bay region of the Gale Crater consisted of a “fluvio-lacustrine environment.” “Lacustrine” describes a lake environment and the term “fluvial” refers to rivers and streams and the deposits they form. Curiosity found rock layering in the Gale Crater, similar to what Opportunity discovered in the Endeavour Crater but with layers extending to a depth of over five meters. The composition of sediment in the Yellowknife Bay layers matches that of the surrounding lava-based rock. Measurements revealed the presence of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus—all chemical elements required by life. The chemical composition also revealed the chemical gradients necessary for chemoautotroph metabolism.²

Potentially Habitable but Transient

These data imply the existence of a river-fed lake with depth ranging from meters to a few tens-of-meters. The thickness of the sedimentary layers means the lake persisted for hundreds to tens-of-thousands of years. Analysis also indicates a neutral pH and low salinity environment. All these conditions led the authors to argue for the plausibility of habitable environments early in Mars’s history (before 3.5 billion years ago).

These results highlight the strong (and growing) body of evidence that Mars hosted liquid water environments for sustained periods early in its history—but this conclusion is not very surprising to astronomers. Water is the third most abundant molecule in the universe (behind H₂ and H₃+), thus we expect rocky planets to start with plenty of water. Furthermore, Mars’s distant location from the Sun (compared to Earth’s) means that the active and violent conditions during its early history would provide transient, local environments where liquid water might flourish. However, the potentially habitable conditions on Mars clearly ended within a few hundred million years—a result that shows sustainable life requires more than just the basic chemical ingredients.

Studies of neighboring planets continue to demonstrate the uniqueness of Earth’s remarkable capacity to host a diverse, sustained, and thriving system of life. The types of life that have existed throughout Earth’s history played a major role in maintaining and advancing that habitable character—even in the midst of significant astronomical, geological, and atmospheric change. The complex interplay between such different influences to sustain Earth’s habitability across the planet for billions of years continues to point to the work of a divine Designer. (JZ,RTB)

*** Will Myers

Long-held scientific consensus that pseudogenes are functionless genetic junk has been further discredited by the discovery that some pseudogenes code for proteins. Does this unexpected finding support the evolutionary paradigm—or creation models?

During the course of the football season, sports pundits fill the airwaves with predictions about the outcome of games to be played each week. Little agreement exists, and when the prognosticators do reach a consensus, invariably an upset occurs. No matter how much you know about the sport, it’s difficult to predict the outcome of a football contest. As the adage goes, “That’s why the game is played.”

Like armchair quarterbacks, scientists make predictions about the outcome of experiments and observational studies. In fact, making and evaluating predictions defines the scientific enterprise. As new work by researchers from Sweden attests, however, making successful predictions—particularly when they deal with so-calledjunk DNA—can be just as tricky as forecasting the results of a football game.¹

Pseudogenes with Function

Evolutionary biologists long regarded pseudogenes as nonfunctional junk, a class ofDNA elements that represents the remains of genes that lost their function due to mutations. Employing the evolutionary paradigm, biologists assumed that pseudogenes lack function solely based on their characteristics. For decades, this prediction was left unconfirmed experimentally—until the recent advent of genomics. Now, after nearly 10 years of research, molecular biologists and geneticists have delivered a scientific upset: pseudogenes display function. Specifically, they play a role in regulating gene expression.² (As an example, see “Functional Pseudogenes Are Everywhere!”)

The researchers from Sweden have uncovered a second possible function for pseudogenes. They developed a new method of identifying and determining which genes are used to make proteins. Using their method, they discovered a number of previously unidentified genes in the human and mouse genomes. About 35 percent of the newly identified genes are pseudogenes that the cell’s machinery uses to produce proteins—a completely unexpected result. As one of the researchers noted, “Our study challenges the old theory that pseudogenes don’t code for proteins.”³

And that’s why experiments are performed.

Reflecting Common Design

The extent to which pseudogenes encode for useful protein products remains unknown at this point. Still, this study opens up the possibility that a significant fraction is translated. Moreover, the recognition that pseudogenes display a range of functions mitigates one of the most compelling arguments for common descent.

Many people believed these nonfunctional DNA sequences stood as a potent challenge to intelligent design and as powerful evidence for biological evolution. It didn’t make sense that a Creator would intentionally create genomes with junk sequences and then, on top of that, introduce identical (or nearly identical) versions of these sequences into the corresponding locations within the genomes of different organisms. A shared evolutionary history made better sense of shared pseudogenes.

But more and more genomics research implies that the shared pseudogene sequences in genomes could just as easily reflect common design. (For a more detailed discussion, see “Archetype or Ancestor? Sir Richard Owen and the Case for Design.”) While the evolutionary paradigm initially predicted that pseudogenes lack function, a creation model or intelligent design framework has long held to the expectation that most, if not all, of the genome, including pseudogenes, has purpose. (For an example, see “‘Junk’ DNA Not So Junky.”)

For a historical perspective on the key scientific discoveries demonstrating the central role pseudogenes play in gene expression, check out these articles:

• “An Unexpected Find”
• “Pseudogene Decoy Reveals Hidden Evidence for Design”
• “Functional Pseudogenes Are Everywhere!”
• “Unitary Pseudogenes Have Function!” Part 1 and Part 2
• “High Levels of Pseudogene Expression Help Silence the Case for Common Descent”
• (F,RTB)

*** Will Myers