AN UPDATE FROM DR. CAROLINE LEAF

Posted on November 30, 2021 by Will Myers

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Can Science Detect the Creator’s Fingerprints in Nature?

Posted on November 30, 2021 by Will Myers

April 12th, 2017
By Dr. Fazale Rana

Which of all these does not know that the hand of the Lord has done this? (Job 12:9, NIV)

In early March (2017), I took part in a forum at Samford University (Birmingham, AL) entitled Genesis and Evolution. At this two-day event, the panelists presented and discussed scientific and biblical perspectives on young-earth, old-earth, and evolutionary versions of creationism.

The organizers of this forum charged me with the responsibility of describing old-earth creationism (OEC) from a scientific vantage point while also providing the rationale for my views. As part of my presentation, the organizers asked me to discuss the assumptions that undergird my views. One of the foundational tenets of OEC is an important idea taught in Scripture: God has revealed Himself to us through the record of nature. According to passages such as Job 12:7–9, part of that revelation includes the “fingerprints” He has left on His creation.

Detecting the Fingerprints

If Scripture is true, then scientific investigation should uncover evidence for design throughout the natural realm. Science should detect God’s fingerprints. And indeed, it has. As a biochemist, I am deeply impressed with the elegance, sophistication, and ingenuity of the cell’s molecular systems. In my view, these features reflect the work of a mind—a divine Mind. But the evidence for intelligent design in the biochemical realm is much more extensive. For example, the eerie similarity between the structure and function of biochemical systems and the objects and devices produced by human designers further evinces the Creator’s handiwork. In my book The Cell’s Design, I show how the remarkable similarities serve to revitalize William Paley’s Watchmaker argument for God’s existence.

To describe the hallmark features of human designs, Paley used the term “contrivance.” Human designs are contrivances—and so are biological systems. If human contrivances require the work of human designers, then it follows that biological systems—which are also contrivances—require a divine Designer. In The Cell’s Design, I introduce the concept of an intelligent design pattern. Following Paley, I identify several features that characterize human designs. Collectively, these characteristics form a pattern that can then be matched to the features of biological and biochemical systems. The greater the match between the intelligent design pattern and biological/biochemical systems, the greater the certainty that designs found in living systems are the work of a Mind.

Is Science Capable of Detecting the Supernatural?

In response to my presentation at the Genesis and Evolution event, cell biologist Kenneth Miller from Brown University—a well-known critic of intelligent design—argued that creationism and intelligent design cannot be part of the construct of science because science lacks the capability of detecting the supernatural. In his book The Triumph of Evolution: And the Failure of Creationism, paleontologist Niles Eldredge makes this very point:

We humans can directly experience the material world only through our senses, and there is no way we can directly experience the supernatural. Thus, in the enterprise that is science, it isn’t an ontological claim that a God . . . does not exist, but rather an epistemological recognition that even if such a God did exist, there would be no way to experience that God given the impressive, but still limited, means afforded by science. And that is true by definition.1

But as I pointed out during my presentation, there are scientific disciplines predicated on science’s capacity to detect the activity of intelligent agency. One such research program is SETI (the search for extraterrestrial intelligence). Astronomers involved in this program seek ways to distinguish electromagnetic radiation emanating from astronomical objects from those hypothetically generated by intelligent agents that are part of alien civilizations. To put it another way, SETI is an intelligent design research program.

Aliens and Fast Radio Bursts

Research by scientists from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics powerfully illustrates this point.2 These investigators propose that fast radio bursts (FRBs) emanate from alien technology, specifically planet-sized transmitters powering interstellar probes.

Astronomers discovered FRBs in 2007. Since then, around two dozen exceedingly bright millisecond-long bursts of radio emissions have been detected. Astronomers think that FRBs originate in distant galaxies, billions of light-years away.

The Harvard-Smithsonian scientists calculate that the transmitters could generate enough energy from sunlight to move probes through space, if the light was directed onto an area of a planet twice the size of Earth. Given the energies involved, the transmitters would have to be cooled. Again, the researchers estimate that a water-cooled device twice Earth’s size could keep the transmitter from melting.

The researchers recognize that construction of the transmitters lies beyond our technology but is possible given the laws of physics. They speculate that aliens built these transmitters to power light sails to move spacecraft weighing a million tons and carrying living creatures across interstellar space.

These astronomers maintain that the transmitter would have to continually focus its beam on the light sail to power it. Accordingly, because the sail, its planet, star, and galaxy all move relative to us, FRBs originate when the transmitter’s beam sweeps across the sky and briefly points in Earth’s direction.

So, are FRBs evidence for alien technology? Avi Loeb, one of the Harvard-Smithsonian scientists, admits that their proposal is speculative but justifies it because they “haven’t identified a possible natural source with any confidence.”3 Loeb argues, “Deciding what’s likely ahead of time limits the possibilities. It’s worth putting ideas out there and letting the data be the judge.”4

His Evidence Is Clearly Seen

So contrary to the protests of scientists such as Miller and Eldredge, science does have the tool kit to detect the handiwork of intelligent agents and even discern the capabilities and motives of the intelligent designer(s). Therefore, why not let intelligent design proponents and creationists put their ideas out there and let the data be the judge?

It is interesting that the Harvard-Smithsonian astronomers think they can recognize the work of intelligent designers who possess capabilities beyond what we can understand—and maybe even imagine. They also think that they can discern the purpose behind the alien technology—space exploration. Then why can’t science recognize the work of a Creator whose capabilities exist beyond what we can imagine?

Considering the proposal by the Harvard-Smithsonian investigators, it is disingenuous for Miller, Eldredge, and other scientists to reject, out of hand, the scientific evidence for God’s fingerprints in biochemical systems. I contend that the intelligent design pattern that I describe in The Cell’s Design can be used to rigorously—and even quantitatively—characterize the Creator’s activity in biological systems. Moreover, as I have discussed previously, science has the tools to identify the Designer.

As the apostle Paul wrote, evidence for the Creator is “clearly seen, being understood from what has been made” (Romans 1:20). If only the scientific community would be willing to look.

Resources:

Endnotes:

  1. Niles Eldredge, The Triumph of Evolution: And the Failure of Creationism (New York: Holt and Company, 2001), 13.
  2. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, “Could Fast Radio Bursts Be Powering Alien Probes?,” Science News (blog), ScienceDaily, March 9, 2017, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170309120419.htm.
  3. Ibid.
  4. Ibid.

Subjects: Intelligent Design, Old Earth Creationism

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The Evolution of the Automobile: Evidence for Intelligent Design

Posted on November 22, 2021 by Will Myers

August 3rd, 2016
By Guest Writer, Dr. Fazale Rana

“It’s déjà vu all over again.”

As the story goes, baseball player and manager Yogi Berra first uttered this famous yogi-ism sitting in the dugout watching Mickey Mantle and Roger Maris hit back-to-back home runs. Something that happened on more than one occasion.

Yogi Berra’s verbal blunders are legendary. But, perhaps none top the blunder made by biologist Tim Berra. Berra’s blunder didn’t have anything to do with what he said, but with what he wrote in his book Evolution and the Myth of Creationism, published in 1990.

Berra’s Blunder

Targeting a nontechnical audience, Berra presented a case for biological evolution and explained why he and so many scientists think evolution is a fact. As part of this project, he described the evidence for human evolution, highlighting the progressive features of the hominid fossil record. Berra argues,

“If the australopithecines, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus were alive today, and if we could parade them before the world, there could be no doubt about our relatedness to them. It would be like attending an auto show. If you look at a 1953 Corvette and compare it to the latest model, only the most general resemblances are evident, but if you compare a 1953 and a 1954 Corvette, side by side, then a 1954 and 1955 model, and so on, the descent with modification is overwhelmingly obvious. This is what paleontologists do with fossils, and the evidence is so solid and comprehensive that it cannot be denied by reasonable people.”1

In comparing Corvette models with “transitional intermediates” in the fossil record, Berra made a significant error that has become known among creationists and ID proponents as Berra’s blunder. It almost goes without saying, Berra’s mistake was to use Corvettes—machines designed by automotive engineers—as an analogy for the hominid fossil record, claiming that sequential anatomical changes among the various hominid species reflect the outworking of an unguided evolutionary process in the same way that sequential design changes to Corvettes reflect the evolution of technology. But, as pointed out at that time by several creationists and intelligent design proponents, the Corvette sequence actually tells us something about how intelligent agents sometimes create: namely, designers can attain their goals by progressively modifying existing designs. To put it another way, the chronological appearance of organisms in the fossil record displaying serial changes to their anatomical, physiological, and behavioral features could be explained as the work of a Creator who was successively producing creatures that displayed modifications of an archetypical design. In this sense, the fossil record doesn’t necessarily compel reasonable people to accept biological evolution any more than does the evolution of the American automobile.

The sequential changes seen in the fossil record just as reasonably reflect the work of a mind as mechanism.

 Déjà Vu Once More

Recently, researchers from UCLA made the same blunder as Tim Berra—all over again!2 These investigators wanted to understand the principles that influence the tempo and mode for technology development in a society. As a case study, these investigators examined the appearance and disappearance of American car and truck models manufactured between 1896 (when automobiles were first produced) and 2014, using the same approach that paleontologists might use to study the fossil record. Specifically, they monitored the year-by-year diversity of automobile models, paying special attention to the number of new models that were produced (analogous to speciation) each year and the number of discontinued models (analogous to extinction).

These researchers also explored the factors influencing the diversity of automobile models each year. Particularly, they assessed the effects of competition, and the impact of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and oil prices.

Their analysis indicates that the “origination” and “extinction” rates of automobile models displayed highly similar patterns over the course of the last 118 years. In both cases, origination and extinction rates were highest early in the automobile’s history, gradually declining to lower rates over time. The rates of decline dramatically slowed in the 1960s when the Big Three auto manufacturers rose to dominance in the American market place. Since the 1980s, the rate of automobile model extinction has outpaced the appearance rate of new models. However, during this time frame, the lifespan of automobile models has significantly increased.

The UCLA researchers also discovered that completion has had a much greater influence on automobile diversity than GDP and oil prices.

Based on these results, the authors of this study argue that when a technology is in its early stages, manufacturers introduce more experimental designs into the marketplace. But because these designs are experimental, they also disappear more rapidly. They maintain that the appearance and disappearance rates slow as dominant designs emerge. When that happens, it becomes too costly to introduce experimental models into the marketplace. Eventually, cost becomes such a significant factor that it causes the life expectancy of designs to persist for longer time periods.

Based on this study, the UCLA scientists predict that in the near future the number of hybrid and electric car designs will rapidly diversify—a radiation event, of sorts—because these technologies are in their nascent stages.

The Fossil Record and the Case for Creation

The UCLA researchers demonstrated that some of the techniques paleontologists use to study the fossil record—and hence, the history of life on Earth—can yield important insights about the way cultures and technologies change and develop. However, as with Berra’s blunder, they treated designed objects as if they were fossils, which, according to the evolutionary paradigm, are produced by unguided, mechanistic processes. The approach the UCLA research team used to study technology development, once again, highlights the fact that the sequential changes seen in the fossil record just as reasonably reflect the work of a mind as mechanism.

But, it is possible to take the implications of their work one step further. Not only can we argue that the progressive anatomical changes observed in fossilized organisms reflect the Creator’s handiwork, but so do overall patterns in the fossil record. The UCLA study demonstrates that when it comes to technology produced by human designers, the number of design variants and the rate that designs appear and disappear from the marketplace have a rational basis. Though the rationale may be different than what the UCLA researchers discovered for the automobile’s evolution, it becomes all the more reasonable to view changes in biological diversity and origination and extinction rates in the fossil record as reflecting a Creator’s intentional activity.

In other words, the evidence (the fossil record and homology) that biologists insist provides compelling support for the evolutionary paradigm actually finds ready explanation from a creation model perspective.

Resources

“Archetype or Ancestor? Sir Richard Owen and the Case for Design” by Fazale Rana (Article)

Endnotes

  1. Tim Berra, Evolution and the Myth of Creationism (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 117.
  2. Erik Gjesfjeld et al., “Competition and Extinction Explain the Evolution of Diversity in American Automobiles,” Palgrave Communications 2 (May 2016): 16019, doi:10.1057/palcomms.2016.19.

 

Subjects: Creation vs. Evolution, Fossil Record, Transitional Forms

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Does Quantum Gravity Avoid the Need for a Cosmic Creator?

Posted on November 22, 2021 by Will Myers

March 6th, 2017
By Dr. Hugh Ross

Many people use quantum gravity as a loophole for avoiding the conclusion that a Creator must have intervened from beyond space and time to create the universe. (There are excellent theoretical rebuttals to such speculations that I will report on in future articles.) A recent breakthrough shows the possibility of observational testing in this area. Thanks to new observations of distant quasars and blazers at short wavelengths, astronomers have placed strong constraints on quantum gravity speculations.

What Is Quantum Gravity?
Everything we can know and measure about the universe from the present all the way back to when the universe was just 10-35 seconds old reveals that gravity dominates the dynamics of the universe. Physicists are designing theories to cope with conditions before the universe was even 10-43 seconds old (less than a quadrillionth-quadrillionth-trillionth second). At 10-43 seconds, the force of gravity within the universe becomes comparable to the strong nuclear force. (The strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of the atom.) Before this epoch in the history of the universe, gravity may possibly be modified by quantum mechanical effects. Hence this early stage of the universe is called the quantum gravity era.

Since the energy densities that exist during the quantum gravity era lie far beyond the capabilities of even the most powerful particle accelerators (a particle accelerator longer than 50 times the distance to the most distant galaxy in the universe is needed), many theoreticians have presumed, therefore, that they are free to speculate any physical conditions, or, for that matter, any physical laws they desire. However, since such physics is obviously beyond “the possibility of observational verification,” it would by definition fall outside the realm of science and into the realm of metaphysics.

Observational Constraints on Quantum Gravity Speculations
Even though the energies during the quantum gravity era are far beyond current experimental physics, a powerful observational check does exist—the present universe in which we live. If a quantum gravity theory cannot explain how the present universe developed from the initial quantum state, it must be incorrect. By this means, a number of quantum gravity theories can be ruled out.

Astronomers can rule out many more quantum gravity theories through observations of distant quasars and gamma-ray sources. In quantum gravity models the foaminess of space-time is a consequence of the energy uncertainty principle. While the individual space-time fluctuations (foam) are infinitesimally small, depending on the particular quantum gravity model, the fluctuations accumulate (become more frothy) over long path lengths. This accumulation can blur the images of the most distantly observed sources. The blurring effect is most pronounced at short wavelengths.

For some quantum gravity models, the blurring effect makes the detection of distant quasars and gamma-ray burst sources impossible.1 These models clearly are eliminated by astronomers’ successful observations of these sources. Constraints on the blurring of the images of distant quasars, blazers, and gamma-burst objects rule out random walk (randomly varying quantum foam) quantum gravity models2 and also rule out holographic quantum gravity models.3(Holographic cosmic models are an outcome of string theories that suggest the entire universe may be seen as two-dimensional information on a cosmological horizon beyond our field of view.) As four European astrophysicists concluded, “All the main QG [quantum gravity] scenarios are excluded.”4

The next generation of ground-based and space telescopes will have the capability of observing the blurring, or lack thereof, of images of quasars, blazers, and gamma-ray burst sources at greater distances and shorter wavelengths. These future observations will yield much stronger constraints on quantum gravity and string theories.

Already, the observed lack of blurred images of objects at great distances establishes that the universe’s space-time fabric is smooth to a high degree out to great distances and deep into the quantum gravity realm. This smoothness implies the likely ubiquitous application of both the theories of special relativity and general relativity. This ubiquitous application means that the space-time theorems proving that a Causal Agent beyond space and time created the universe5are unlikely to be overturned by some exotic physics operating during the quantum gravity era. It also yields by far the strongest constraint on possible variations in the velocity of light. It establishes that the velocity of light in a vacuum cannot vary by more than a few parts in 100 million trillion trillion (1032).6

The lack of observed image blurring has implications beyond the validity of the space-time theorems. Many physicists, in their attempts to avoid the varied theological implications of big bang cosmology, speculate that the laws of physics break down previous to 10-43 seconds after the cosmic creation event. The observed lack of blurred images of distant sources means that if such a breakdown does occur, the physical laws cannot break down by very much.

Endnotes

  1. Eric S. Perlman et al., “New Constraints on Quantum Foam Models from X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Observations of Distant Quasars,” preprint, submitted July 28, 2016, arXiv:1697.08551; Eric S. Perlman et al., “New Constraints on Quantum Gravity from X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Observations,” Astrophysical Journal 805 (May 2015): id. 10, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/805/1/10.
  2. Perlman, “New Constraints”; Eric S. Perlman et al., “Using Observations of Distant Quasars to Constrain Quantum Gravity,” Astronomy & Astrophysics 535 (November 2011): id. L9, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118319; Wayne A. Christiansen et al., “Limits on Spacetime Foam,” Physical Review D 83 (April 2011): id. 084003, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.83.084003.
  3. Perlman, “New Constraints.”
  4. F. Tamburini et al., “No Quantum Gravity Signature from the Farthest Quasars,” Astronomy & Astrophysics 533 (September 2011): id. A71, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015808.
  5. Hugh Ross, Why the Universe Is the Way It Is (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008), 128–31.
  6. Richard Lieu and Lloyd W. Hillman, “The Phase Coherence of Light from Extragalactic Sources: Direct Evidence Against First-Order Planck-Scale Fluctuations in Time and Space,” Astrophysical Journal Letters 585 (March 2003): L77–L80, doi:10.1086/374350.

Subjects: Big Bang Theory, Cosmology, God’s Existence, Relativity, Laws of Physics, Origin of the Universe, Particle Physics

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Can Science Identify the Intelligent Designer?

Posted on November 22, 2021 by Will Myers

July 16, 2015
By Dr. Fazale Rana

We live in a world that values tolerance and religious pluralism. Because of this widespread attitude, perhaps it’s not surprising that one of the questions I’m most often asked by non-Christian academics relates to the identity of the Designer. They want to know, how does the scientific case for intelligent design specifically identify the God of the Bible as the Designer?

I answer this question differently than many of my friends associated with the Intelligent Design (ID) Movement. They argue that scientific inquiry cannot determine the Designer’s identity. Christian ID proponents maintain that there are nonscientific reasons why they believe that the biblical God is the Designer, but they insist that the Designer’s identity is not a question science can address.

I respectfully disagree. I think that science has the wherewithal to provide sufficient clues that allow us to infer the Designer’s identity. To appreciate why I would adopt this position, I need to first explain why intelligent design has a place in science.

Intelligent Design Is Part of the Construct of Science

Because of the influence of methodological naturalism (the philosophical position that scientific explanations must be restricted to natural processes), many people assert that intelligent design lies beyond the bounds of science. Yet a number of scientific disciplines are predicated on scientists’ ability to detect the activity of intelligent agents and distinguish that activity from natural processes. For example, forensic scientists can determine whether or not an individual died as the result of natural processes, by accident, or by the intentional action of another person—an intelligent agent. Anthropologists can examine pieces of rock and determine whether the stones were intentionally fabricated into a tool by a hominid (such as Neanderthals) or merely shaped by natural processes. In the quest to identify alien civilizations, researchers at SETI monitor electromagnetic radiation emanating from distant stars looking for signatures that bear the hallmark of intelligent agency. In the early 1970s, Leslie Orgel and Francis Crick proposed directed panspermia to explain the origin of life on Earth, and they even suggested ways to scientifically test this idea.

Science does have the toolkit to detect the work of an intelligent designer and distinguish it from natural causes and events. If so, then why can’t scientific inquiry determine if an intelligent designer played a role in the origin, history, and design of life and the universe? It seems to me that it can, and I would argue that it has.

Science, not only possesses the capacity to detect the work of intelligent agency, it also has the means to provide insight about the agent’s characteristics. Crime scene investigators can determine if a murderer was left-handed or right-handed, the probable height of the culprit, etc. Anthropologists can glean a tremendous amount about the biology and cognitive ability of hominids by examining the tools they made. If SETI scientists were to detect a signal that emanated from an alien civilization, no doubt they could discern something about the aliens that sent it by analyzing the signal’s properties and studying the star system that generated the signal.

The Scientific Case for God’s Existence and the Identity of the Designer

So, what can we infer about the identity of the Intelligent Designer from science? A handful of scientific insights provide some important clues.

Astronomers have learned that the universe had a beginning. This means that it must have a cause, and that this cause exists outside the universe itself. To put it another way, a transcendent cause brought the universe into existence. (For many people, this knowledge provides evidence for God’s existence.) If we take the transcendent cause to be the Intelligent Designer, then the Designer must reside beyond the universe and must be powerful enough to cause the universe (Genesis 1:1). Astronomers also believe that time began when our universe began, suggesting that the Intelligent Designer must operate outside the confines of time (Psalm 90:2; Isaiah 40:28).

Astronomers and astrophysicists have learned that the fundamental parameters, constants, and characteristics that define the universe must assume precise values for life to exist. This fine-tuning suggests that the universe was designed for a purpose. (Again, many people view the fine-tuning of the universe as further evidence for God’s existence.) Design and purpose are qualities that derive from a Mind. This insight about the fine-tuning of the universe means that the Intelligent Designer must have a personality (Job 38–41).

The constancy of the laws of nature and the orderliness of the universe indicate that the Designer is not capricious. Instead, the Agent responsible for the universe appears to be unwavering and unchanging (James 1:17; Malachi 3:6; Hebrews 13:8).

The repeated occurrence of the same designs throughout biology and the universal nature of biochemical systems imply that a single Designer produced life, not an ensemble of designers (1 Corinthians 8:6).

Advances in our understanding of biochemical systems revitalize William Paley’s watchmaker argument for God’s existence. The remarkable similarities between the architecture and operation of biochemical systems and human designs indicate that the cell’s chemical systems are the work of a Mind. This observation also suggests that a resonance exists between the mind of human designers and the Intelligent Designer. To put it another way, human beings appear to be made in the image of the Intelligent Designer (Genesis 1:26–27).

The beauty on display throughout the universe and the marvelously fascinating creatures that make up the biological realm demonstrate that the Designer possesses an artist’s flair and playfulness. The Intelligent Agent responsible for life seemingly takes great delight in what He has made (Genesis 1:31a; Psalm 104:26).

There are many such evidences, but I believe that this short list provides us with sufficient insight about the Designer’s qualities that we could reasonably conclude that the Intelligent Designer is most likely the God of the Bible.

But a skeptic might raise the question about so-called bad designs in nature. What about all the pain and suffering? Do these features of nature mean that the Intelligent Designer is malevolent? Do they imply that the Intelligent Designer is incompetent? Not necessarily. It is hard to argue that the Creator who could bring the universe into existence lacks competence. And when we examine supposed bad designs more carefully, we often find compelling reasons to view the “bad” designs as actually good designs. Junk DNA has become the quintessential case in point.

As for pain and suffering in the world, a number of philosophers have pointed out that there may be good reasons why the Intelligent Designer would create a world where pain and suffering exist. And science provides some clues as to what those reasons might be.

It is remarkable to me how strong the scientific case is for intelligent design. As a Christian, I don’t find it all surprising that the scientific evidence directs us to the God of the Bible. After all, Scripture teaches that God has revealed Himself to us through the creation.

Resources

Subjects: Intelligent Design Movement

Dr. Fazale Rana

In 1999, I left my position in R&D at a Fortune 500 company to join Reasons to Believe because I felt the most important thing I could do as a scientist is to communicate to skeptics and believers alike the powerful scientific evidence—evidence that is being uncovered day after day—for God’s existence and the reliability of Scripture. Read more about Dr. Fazale Rana

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A Brief Response to Stephen Hawking’s Passing

Posted on November 16, 2021 by Will Myers
By J. Zweerink

As announced in the Daily Mail, the renowned Stephen Hawking died peacefully at his home on Wednesday. Since I work for an Christian organization that talks about science-faith issues, I thought quite a bit about what I would say if asked about his passing. Given that Hawking did not believe in God, could I give Stephen Hawking a eulogy—a speech that would praise him highly? Yes, I could.

I would commend Hawking for his indomitable spirit in light of a debilitating disease. His ALS diagnosis came during the prime years of college and graduate school. Although he apparently became depressed upon receiving the diagnosis, he worked through the depression and produced remarkable scientific results for the next five decades! When so many people seem to want the ability to opt out of life in difficult times, Hawking’s mindset lends a refreshing spirit:

And however difficult life may seem, there is always something you can do and succeed at. It matters that you don’t just give up.

Hawking’s passion for physics inspired many people to pursue careers in physics and astronomy, and probably other scientific disciplines as well. He provided seminal contributions to our understanding of space-time singularities, how black holes operate (particularly that they should radiate mass away over time), the early universe, the black hole information paradox, and many others.

No one undertakes research in physics with the intention of winning a prize. It is the joy of discovering something no one knew before.

Additionally, Hawking’s eloquence in communicating complex ideas enabled thousands, if not millions, to understand this spectacular universe better. He first published A Brief History of Time in 1988. The book addressed extremely technical topics like big bang cosmology, black holes, general relativity, and quantum mechanics, but at a nontechnical level. Over 20 years, this book sold more than 10 million copies!

Remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Try to make sense of what you see and wonder about what makes the universe exist. Be curious.

Clearly, Hawking and I disagreed on the existence and character of God. He looked at the cosmos and concluded that God was unnecessary.

God is the name people give to the reason we are here. But I think that reason is the laws of physics rather than someone with whom one can have a personal relationship. An impersonal God.

I look at the universe and see God’s handiwork. Not having discussed the matter with Hawking, I cannot presume to know what caused the difference in our views, but I am saddened that Hawking never experienced the joy I personally have in knowing Jesus Christ as my Savior. Though he and I came to different conclusions as to the reason why we’re here, I’m genuinely grateful for Stephen Hawking’s contributions to science.

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THE AUTHORJeff Zweerink

Since my earliest memories, science and the Christian faith have featured prominently in my life – but I struggled when my scientific studies seemed to collide with my early biblical training. My f… Read more about Jeff Zweerink.

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Take Up and Read: City of God

This current blog series on Reflections is intended to encourage Christians to read more vigorously by providing a beginner’s guide to some of the Christian classics in such fields as theology, philosophy, and apologetics. Hopefully, a brief introduction to these important Christian texts will motivate today’s believers—as St. Augustine was called to in his dramatic conversion to Christianity—to “take up and read” (Latin: Tolle lege) these classic books.

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One Uniquely Smooth, Regular, and Stable Star

In several of my speaking events, I remind my audiences that stars are like human beings: they are all unstable to some degree. Also, like humans, the most stable stars are those that are middle-aged.

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Mitochondria’s Deviant Genetic Code: Evolution or Creation?

Before joining Reasons to Believe, I worked for nearly a decade in research and development (R&D) for a Fortune 500 company. During my tenure, on several occasions I was assigned to work on a “resurrected” project—one that was mothballed years earlier for one reason or another but was then deemed worthy of another go-around by upper management.

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Birth of First Gene-Edited Babies Stirs Debate

Posted on November 16, 2021 by Will Myers
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Birth of First Gene-Edited Babies Stirs Debate

BY – DECEMBER 1, 2018

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While the idea of “customizing” babies through gene editing has been discussed in recent news—theory has now become fact. However groundbreaking this technique may be, many people are concerned. Is CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing the cure for what was once incurable? Or is this the doorway to tailor-made human beings? Anjeanette “AJ” Roberts joins Hal Roberts, host of Bridge City News, to discuss this important and controversial topic.

This interview is uncut and unedited as it originally aired on December 1, 2018 on Bridge City News. Opinions and third party advertisements in this recording were selected and placed by the original owners and do not necessarily reflect the beliefs of Reasons to Believe.

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How Cyclical Volcanic Activity Benefits Humanity

Posted on November 16, 2021 by Will Myers

BY HUGH ROSS – JANUARY 7, 2019

When we think about volcanoes, the images that typically come to mind are violent eruptions that devastate the surrounding landscapes and bring death or serious injury to anyone so unfortunate as to be in the vicinity. Figure 1, for example, shows the lava flows from the 1985 eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano, which killed more than 23,000 people and destroyed the town of Armero, Colombia.

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Figure 1: Town of Armero, Colombia, wiped out by the 1985 eruption of Nevada del Ruiz. Image credit: Jeffrey Marso, United States Geological Survey

People are quick, however, to return to the regions near recent volcanic eruptions. The reason why is that the volcanic rocks and ash from eruptions contain stores of rich nutrients that yield bumper harvests of food crops.

This curse and blessing of volcanic eruptions raises an interesting question: wouldn’t it be great if volcanic eruptions were especially frequent when nobody lived near the volcanoes and especially infrequent when people were exploiting their rich soils for food? A recently published paper by five geologists shows that such a marvelous timing has indeed occurred, and it ranks as yet another fine-tuned feature of our planet that allows humans to enjoy sustained global high-technology civilization.

The paper published in Quaternary Science Reviews updates a hypothesis, based on evidence that volcanic activity in Iceland increased after the last glacial maximum, that deglaciation produces enhanced volcanic activity.1 The five geologists reanalyzed the four longest and most reliable tephra records.

Tephra is fragmented material ejected by a volcanic eruption regardless of fragment size, composition, or how the fragmented material got to its location. Where the tephra is hot enough, it will fuse together into pyroclastic rock or tuff (volcanic ash compacted to form solid rock). Figure 2 shows tephra layers from multiple eruptions of the Hekla volcano.

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Figure 2: Tephra Layers in South Central Iceland from the Hekla Volcano. Image credit: Dentren, GNU Free Documentation License

The geological team investigated four tephra records that covered multiple glacial cycles. These four records were all linked with oxygen-18 measurements that accurately revealed both the recent historical records of sea level variations and variations in the global mean (average) temperature. Scientists obtained the four tephra records from different latitudes and different geotectonic settings.

All the tephra records exhibited the Milankovitch periodicities of precession (23,000 years), rotation axis tilt (41,000 years), and orbital eccentricity (approximately 100,000 years). I have written previously about Earth’s Milankovitch cycles here,2 here,3 and here,4 and how they in large part explain the repeated episodes of glaciations and deglaciations that characterize the ice age cycle of the past 2.588 million years.

All the tephra records show that periods of increased volcanic eruption frequencies coincide with the dramatic deglaciations that occur at the glacial-interglacial transitions. Evidently, the release of the load of ice and snow on the continental landmasses ignites volcanic eruptions.

The long duration tephra records in this study, however, add up to just four. Thus, the five geologists call for “more precise tephra time series (preservation and age optimized) from different regions (glaciated versus non-glaciated) and geological settings (island arcs, continental arcs, intraplate)”5 … “to decipher the impact of these factors on a global perspective of how climate may control volcanism.”6

Enhanced volcanic eruptions at the beginning of an interglacial period imply that much of Earth’s continental landmasses and its lakes, rivers, and oceans receive a delivery of nutrients that allows microbes, vegetation, and animals to flourish. This fertilization event coincides with another fertilization event that I wrote about in Improbable Planet. I stated there that at the beginning of an interglacial “fine loess (wind-blown dust) from dried-out parts of the floodplains of glacial braided rivers carried layers of crucial nutrients onto the lowland plains below, making them richly fertile.”7

As I have explained in another blog,8 the interglacial we are experiencing right now is unique. It is the longest lasting interglacial and the only one where there has been an extended duration (9,500 years) of extreme climate stability. The current warm period has followed the most severe glacial period in the entire ice age cycle.

The severity and rapidity of the deglaciation from that glacial period resulted—at the time of the beginning of our interglacial period—in the greatest delivery of fine loess and other nutrients from volcanic eruptions. These especially intense and simultaneous fertilization events, to a large degree, explain why humans today are able to grow so much food on Earth’s plains and valleys and why we are able to harvest so much shellfish and other fish from Earth’s oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers.

These especially intense and simultaneous fertilization events give us more reasons to thank God for his supernatural blessings poured out on humanity. They also demonstrate that God planned in advance that billions of us would experience sufficiently high-technology civilization that makes possible the rapid spread of his message of redemption from human sin.

Featured image: Eruption of the Redoubt Volcano in Alaska’s Kenai Peninsula. Image credit: United States Geological Survey

Endnotes
  1. S. Kutterolf et al., “Milankovitch Frequencies in Tephra Records at Volcanic Arcs: The Relation of Kyr-Scale Cyclic Variations in Volcanism to Global Climate Changes.” Quaternary Science Reviews 204 (January 15, 2019): 1–16, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.004.
  2. Hugh Ross, “Milankovitch Cycle Design,” Today’s New Reason to Believe (blog), Reasons to Believe, August 29, 2011, https://www.reasons.org/explore/blogs/todays-new-reason-to-believe/read/tnrtb/2011/08/29/milankovitch-cycle-design.
  3. Hugh Ross, “The Best of All Interglacials,” Today’s New Reason to Believe (blog), Reasons to Believe, January 23, 2017, https://www.reasons.org/explore/blogs/todays-new-reason-to-believe/read/todays-new-reason-to-believe/2017/01/23/the-best-of-all-interglacials.
  4. Hugh Ross, “Exoplanets’ Climate Instabilities Reveal Earth’s Fine-Tuning,” Today’s New Reason to Believe (blog), Reasons to Believe, July 30, 2018, https://www.reasons.org/explore/blogs/todays-new-reason-to-believe/read/todays-new-reason-to-believe/2018/07/30/exoplanets-climate-instabilities-reveal-earth-s-fine-tuning.
  5. S. Kutterolf et al., 1.
  6. S. Kutterolf et al., 1.
  7. Hugh Ross, Improbable Planet: How Earth Became Humanity’s Home (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2016), 210.
  8. Hugh Ross, “Present Climate Epoch Has Been Extremely Stable,” Today’s New Reason to Believe(blog), Reasons to Believe, December 3, 2018, https://reasons.org/explore/blogs/todays-new-reason-to-believe/read/todays-new-reason-to-believe/2018/12/03/present-climate-epoch-has-been-extremely-stable.
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Scientific Discovery & God: The Solar System, Part 2

In part 1 of this series, I discussed how scientific evidence demonstrates that the universe had a beginning and that such a notion best comports with the expectations of theism over atheistic naturalism. Yet that conspicuous beginning took secular scientists by complete surprise. In this article I will briefly discuss what the expectations of secular scientists concerning our solar system were, and what science has revealed. The results will also show which worldview— naturalism or theism—is preferred.

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Cosmic Creation Model Passes Another Test

Last May I debated with Peter Atkins, Oxford University chemist and well-known atheist, on the Unbelievable? radio show and video podcast. Toward the end of the debate, moderator Justin Brierley asked each of us to name a possible scientific discovery that, if proven true beyond any reasonable doubt, would cause us to abandon the philosophical worldview we were advocating. You can watch the debate here.

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The Reformers and the Age of the Earth

October 31, 2017 marked the 500th anniversary of the start of the Protestant Reformation. Along with global recognition of its significance, the event also sparked renewed interest in the Reformers’ teachings and example, which are still relevant to us today. For example, Dr. Joel R. Beeke considers them in his article, “What Did the Reformers Believe about the Age of the Earth?” His central thesis is that the Reformers held a “literal” interpretation of Genesis that he equates with young-earth creationism; namely, that God created everything in six ordinary (24-hour) days less than 6,000 years ago. Is this accurate? If so, should this idea compel believers to adopt a similar view of the age of the earth?

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Apologia Sophia: “Apologetics Wisdom” 6—More Classics

Posted on November 16, 2021 by Will Myers

BY KENNETH R. SAMPLES – APRIL 9, 2019

What is one of the best ways to prepare for explaining and defending Christianity’s truth claims? I suggest that tapping into the wisdom of historic Christianity’s greatest thinkers is one such way.

As I pointed out in parts 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of this series, the term apologia sophia (Gk: ἀπολογία σοφία) transliterates the Greek word endings and roughly translates to “apologetics wisdom.” In this final installment, I hope to give more practical advice (even genuine wisdom) that you can use in your apologetic engagements.

One of my chief aims when I teach students either at Biola University (for a master’s in apologetics program) or in my role as an RTB scholar, is that students of apologetics appropriately ground their defense of the faith in the biblical and orthodox theology of historic Christianity. Apologetics needs to be tightly connected to theology. After all, throughout church history apologetics was viewed as a branch of theology.

Thus, I strongly recommend that students read classic apologetics works that have a strong theological emphasis. In part 5 of this series I listed and described three classic theologically oriented texts. Here are three more.

Theologically Oriented Apologetics Classics

1. On the Incarnation by St. Athanasius

As the title conveys, Athanasius’s (ca. 296–373) book explains and defends the incarnation of Christ against heretical attacks. Athanasius affirms that the essence of Christianity is found Jesus’s claims to be God in human flesh (a single person with both a divine and a human nature). During Athanasius’s lifetime, the influential Arian heresy challenged the incarnation. Arius of Alexandria (ca. 256–336) taught that Christ (the Son) was not truly equal to the Father in nature; rather, he was a created being. In On the Incarnation, Athanasius argues for the truth of the incarnation and indirectly argues against the Arian heresy by insisting that only the God-man (God in human flesh) can save human beings.

2. The City of God by St. Augustine

Augustine wrote in excess of 5 million words over his scholarly career, which makes him the most prolific ancient author. The City of God (Latin: De civitate Dei), written intermittently between AD 413 and 427, is considered to be Augustine’s scholarly masterpiece. The City of God stands as Augustine’s monumental analysis of world-and-life-view. It is his longest (more than a thousand pages) and most comprehensive work, and some people believe it’s his most significant contribution to Western thought. In this book, Augustine laid new foundations in the fields of Christian apologetics and worldview and in the analysis of Christian history.

3. Cur Deus Homo by St. Anselm

Cur Deus Homo is a work of philosophical theology in which St. Anselm (1033–1109) attempts to provide an explanation for possibly the greatest Christian mystery of all (as the Latin title asks): “Why the God-Man?” Anselm lays out a theological theory for why it was necessary for God to become man in Jesus Christ and for the Son of God to suffer. This idea becomes a rational defense of the necessity of the incarnation in light of the atonement. Anselm’s theological conclusion is that only the God-Man can make the necessary payment to restore God’s honor and humankind’s relationship with God. Because Jesus Christ is God, he has the dignity and glory to carry out the task, but he performs it in the nature of a human being. Thus, the incarnate Christ appeases God’s honor and justice.

Reading and studying these three classic books will definitely help apologists ground their apologetic efforts in the richness of historic Christian theology and Scripture. As the Word of God exhorts: “For he [Paul] vigorously refuted his Jewish opponents in public debate, proving from the Scriptures that Jesus was the Messiah” (Acts 18:28).

Reflections: Your Turn

Have you read the three Christian classics above? What other Christian classics have you read? Visit Reflections on WordPress to comment with your response.

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Friday Philosophy from Thinker Ed L. Miller

On my Facebook and Twitter pages I have a weekly segment called #FridayPhilosophy, where I provide quotes from great philosophical thinkers. One philosopher I quote often is professor Ed L. Miller. Dr. Miller’s book Questions That Matter was the first philosophy textbook that I ever used in teaching philosophy and his writings significantly influenced my thinking on the subject.

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Life and Magnetic Field Variations

In last week’s blog about Earth’s magnetic field1 I wrote about recent research by three Australian astronomers that demonstrated the possible existence of life on a planet critically depends on that planet possessing a strong enduring magnetic dipole moment. Now, Harvard University astronomer Manasvi Lingam has published a paper in which he has determined the degree to which variations in the strength of Earth’s magnetic field impact life on Earth. He also shows the degree to which variations in the magnetic field strength of ancient Mars and of planets beyond our solar system impact the habitability of these planets.2

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Will Science Become “Useless”?

In his book A Universe from Nothing, Lawrence Krauss makes no bones about his belief that science provides great contributions to our fundamental knowledge. By contrast, he views input from theology (and philosophy to some extent) as largely useless. Similarly, Stephen Hawking declares, “philosophy is dead,” in The Grand Design.1 Other scientists have publicly echoed these sentiments and probably many more do so privately. Will people view science as useless someday?

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Another Bizarre Exoplanet

Posted on November 16, 2021 by Will Myers

By Jeff Zweerink – September 13, 2019

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What does the discovery of a strange new planet mean? From any perspective, it may mean that the universe continues to surprise us with its variety. From a Christian perspective, it could support the idea that a creator-artist who enjoys making different things has left a signature for his work.

Scientists recently found another first-of-its-kind exoplanet orbiting a Sun-like star roughly 100 light-years away. The new extrasolar planet has been called unusual, joining other unusual examples such as:

  1. Kepler 16(AB) b, a Jupiter-sized planet orbiting around a binary star,
  2. NLTT 5306 b, the almost star-like planet 56 times more massive than Jupiter that orbits its star once every day-and-a-half, or maybe
  3. The two super-earths orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12. Super-earths appear common among other stars yet are unlike anything in our solar system.

The recent discovery, dubbed HR 5183b, contains more than three times the mass of Jupiter, but its orbit brings it closer to its star than our asteroid belt and farther out than Neptune. And it takes somewhere around 75 years to orbit. Discoveries like this usually lead to a better understanding of how our solar system formed. Here’s how. that might be the case for HR 5183b.

An Elongated Orbit

As the diagrams below show, the orbit of HR 5183b resembles that of Halley’s comet far more than it does Jupiter. Its eccentricity has captured scientists’ interest. All the large planets in the solar system have an eccentricity much smaller than 0.1 (nearly circular orbits). HR 5183b has an eccentricity of 0.84 (highly elongated orbit).1 Thus far, all the known mechanisms for making Jupiter-sized planets at Jupiter-like distances tend to result in orbits with low eccentricity—like those seen in our solar system.
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Figures: The Strange Orbit of HR 5183 b (left); credit: Caltech; Halley’s Comet animation (right); credit: Wikimedia Commons.

Size of Orbit

One remarkable feature of this planet relates to the size of its orbit. Normally, the detection of an exoplanet requires at least one full orbit to validate. Although HR 5183b takes somewhere between 45 and 100 years to complete an orbit, astronomers found the exoplanet with observations that started in 1997. HR 5183b spends most of its time far away from its host star, moving at relatively uniform speeds. As it approaches the star, it accelerates with a characteristic signature that a couple decades of observation revealed.

A Star Billions of Years Old

Most of the Jupiter-sized planets orbiting at Jupiter-like distances have been found using the direct detection method (although microlensing techniques find exoplanets in this range also). The direct detection, or imaging, method works best for distant planets around young stars because young planets tend to emit more visible and infrared light than older planets. The fact that HR 5183b orbits a star 7.7 billion years old adds to its unusual nature.

What We Can Learn

The authors of the paper announcing the discovery of HR 5183b suspect that this find represents the first detection of an unexplored class of exoplanets. As scientists seek to understand how this unusual class of exoplanet formed, they will gain better insight into the process necessary to form Earth-like planets. According to the paper, “With this discovery, we continue to uncover the astonishing diversity of planetary systems in our galaxy.”

And it indicates at least one more way that exoplanets differ from our solar system. The more researchers learn about extrasolar planets, the more our planetary system appears to be “unusual,” though not accidental, in its own right.

Endnotes
  1. Sarah Blunt et al., “Radial Velocity Discovery of an Eccentric Jovian World Orbiting at 18 AU,” The Astronomical Journal. Published ahead of print August 26, 2019, arxiv.org/abs/1908.09925.
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Suicide: An Unpardonable Sin for Christians?

Throughout my professional career as both a college professor and a Christian scholar I have been asked thousands of questions. However, whenever I’m asked about suicide it always strikes an emotional chord deep within me. A close member of my family died by suicide more than 40 years ago when I was just a teenager. My wife also lost a member of her family in the same tragic way.

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Tool Use and Mental Well-Being

If you ever watched Tim Allen on Tool Time, the handyman show within the television show Home Improvement, you saw a man who always expressed joy in using some tool or set of tools to fix or solve a problem. Allen (as Tim “The Toolman” Taylor) portrayed what is inherent in us all. All human beings find satisfaction and fulfillment when we successfully use a tool—or better yet, several tools—to fix or solve something that has stumped or vexed us. Research affirms that this fulfillment in humans and some animals appears to result from a Creator’s endowment.

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Primate Thanatology and the Case for Human Exceptionalism

It was the first time someone I knew died. I was in seventh grade. My classmate’s younger brother and two younger sisters perished in a fire that burned his family’s home to the ground. We lived in a small rural town in West Virginia at the time. Everyone knew each other and the impact of that tragedy reverberated throughout the community.

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About Reasons to Believe

RTB’s mission is to spread the Christian Gospel by demonstrating that sound reason and scientific research—including the very latest discoveries—consistently support, rather than erode, confidence in the truth of the Bible and faith in the personal, transcendent God revealed in both Scripture and nature. Learn More »

Support Reasons to Believe

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U.S. Mailing Address
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