Intelligent Design and Biblical Scripture

July 28, 2014
By Guest Writer

Dentists constantly remind patients to brush their teeth well, including the tongue. But as any brusher knows, an errant stroke to the back of the tongue triggers a gag reflex, which also causes the eyes to tear. But why should a stimulus applied in the oral cavity—the opening of the gastrointestinal tract—have any effect on the eyes? Could evolutionary mechanisms have caused the effect or does intelligent agency better explain it? Imagine if, when touching the tongue, one would always hear a particular bell tone, or smell an aroma, or feel the hands or feet become cold as ice or hot as fire, or see temporarily only in hues of black and white? Such anomalous crossings of stimulation with sensation are termed synesthesia. Viewed differently, imagine the engine in a car becoming hotter, but instead of the coolant gauge rising, the radio volume becomes louder. Such a phenomenon would surely send the owner back to the dealer for some warranty repairs. But when the human eyes tear because we have been gagged, it is not an anomaly but a normal function. How did this process come about?

Reflex tearing has been well understood for decades.1 It refers to tearing in response to tactile stimulation of the surface of the eye.2 Bogorad’s syndrome,3 colloquially known as “crocodile tears syndrome,” is an anomaly of function due to damage of the facial nerve that results in tearing not when touching the eye, but when the sufferer simply eats. Here, a normal phenomenon is triggered in a way entirely different from what might be expected. Though scientists have understood the anatomy and physiology of reflex tearing, how it came about is quite another matter. What purpose could there be for what I shall call the gag lacrimal gland reflex (GLGR)?

Consider that a gag reflex is frequently associated with a violent expulsion of the stomach’s contents, or vomiting (emesis). The stomach, in addition to digestive enzymes called proteases, contains hydrochloric acid (also known as muriatic acid), which “is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses.”4 If the ailing person gets some of this mix on the skin quick action should be taken to prevent injury—yet this “alien-blood-like” stuff doesn’t burn a hole in the stomach. Now, when one vomits one also reflexively bends over, bringing the mouth closer to the ground. Also, the force of the expulsion may result in splashing of the acidic mix, thereby leaving the eyes vulnerable to injury. But we humans need not worry because our lacrimal glands spring into action by emptying their stores—effectively hosing down our eyes with tears to help protect them.

This elegant process demonstrates every bit of the same understanding, forethought, and purpose that an aviation emergency response team does. Envision a commercial airliner approaching an airport with malfunctioning landing gear. The crew has decided to undergo the harrowing experience of an emergency belly landing. The airport prepares for the worst by readying fire crews, dispatching convoys of ambulances and EMT personnel, notifying hospitals, and taking the precaution of applying foam to the runway to serve as a retardant for the expected sparks and ignition of possible fire. The plane lands safely due to coordinated effort and engineering.

A belly-landing airplane is not exactly the same as an upset belly, but the same type of intelligence applies. Just as agents mobilize to prevent disaster, so too does the GLGR reduce injury to our highly specialized and vulnerable eyes. One might liken the stomach’s acidic mix to sparks and ignition under the plane’s belly and lacrimal glands secreting tears to firefighters hosing down a runway with fire-retardant foam.

Engineers refer to such an interconnected design trait in an artifact as a System of Systems (SoS). Many designed products—from a watch or piano to a city or Apollo moon rocket—feature such integrated systems to varying degrees, but they are also found in every living organism and often exhibit higher complexity.

The GLGR shows the complex interaction of three organ systems: the gastrointestinal, ophthalmic, and autonomic nervous systems, plus the musculoskeletal (bending over). However, SoS is evident too at the levels of a single organ, the tissue of an organ, the cells of the tissues, and even the subcellular organelle level as revealed by the sciences of physiology, histology, cell and molecular biology, and biochemistry. In fact, the proposition that the universe, humanity, and all other life-forms exist due to the agency of an intelligent Creator would expect evidence of intelligence to be found throughout the physical realm, from the subatomic to the galactic to large-scale structures of the universe. The observations of science support this proposition repeatedly.

To think that such design could result apart from intelligence stretches credulity. Adherents of the neo-Darwinian evolutionary paradigm frequently argue their case by arranging life in artificially imposed orders of increasing complexity by parts (anatomy). However, they do not offer evidence for the evolution of processes (physiology) and behaviors that would theoretically need to be beneficial for survival at every minutely incremental step along the way. Such evidence might cause dyspepsia for the evolutionary biological mantra of “anatomy determines physiology” or “form determines function.” The same data would reveal purposeful design and affirm what all engineers know to be true: “Necessity is the mother of invention” or “function determines form!”

Dr. Eddy M. del Rio

Dr. Eddy M. del Rio received his MD from Saint Louis University in 2004, and currently serves as a practicing physician for the Veterans Health Administration in the greater Springfield, MO region.

Guest Writer

RTB guest writers employ their backgrounds, education, and experiences to provide faith-building, testable evidence, each from the perspective of their unique disciplines.

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References:
J. R. Mutch, “The Lacrimation Reflex,” British Journal of Ophthalmology 28 (July 1944), 317–36.
Michael E. Stern et al., “A Unified Theory of the Role of the Ocular Surface in Dry Eye,” in Lacrimal Gland, Tear Film, and Dry Eye Syndromes 2: Basic Science and Clinical Relevance, ed. David A. Sullivan, Darlene A. Dartt, and Michele A. Meneray (New York: Plenum, 1998). See the neurological pathway for reflex tearing at page 647, but note the absence of sensory input from the oral cavity.
F. A. Bogorad and Austin Seckersen, “The Symptom of Crocodile Tears,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 34 (January 1979): 74–79.
Wikipedia, s.v. “hydrochloric acid,” last modified July 15, 2014, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid.

Guest Writer
July 24, 2014
By Dr. Hugh Ross

From Craig —Vicenza, Italy

I just noticed in Genesis 4:22 it states that Tubal-Cain forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Tubal-Cain is the great-great-great-great grandson of Cain. The genealogy mentioned before his name does not read like other genealogies where “son of…” may mean grandson of or great grandson of, etc. It reads as if he is literally only six generations removed from Cain. If this is the case, given that Adam and Eve were created tens of thousands of years ago, it would seem he lived before the Bronze Age (3800 BC) and Iron Age (1550 BC). Even given the long life spans he would appear to be on the scene too early. Might the words used for bronze and iron mean something else, or do I have my timing interpretation wrong?

****

Craig, in biblical Hebrew one is not compelled to conclude that only six generations transpired between Cain and Tubal-Cain. There may have been many more than just six generations. You will find several articles that address this subject on our website (see here and here, for examples).

In archeology the birth of the Bronze and Iron Ages is defined as those dates when bronze and iron manufacture had become extensive enough to leave behind substantial quantities of artifacts. It is likely that cultivation of crops occurred on small farms owned by individuals long before the Neolithic revolution (circa 12,000 years ago and part of the late Stone Age) and such activity left behind discoverable signatures of large-scale specialized cultivation. Similarly, some isolated examples of small blacksmith shops likely much predated the textbook date for the beginning of the Bronze Age when evidence for large-scale specialized manufacture of bronze products arose.

A second point to consider is that followers of God did not become the salt of the earth until after the Day of Pentecost. Before that event, societal reprobation was common. Such depravity as what occurred in Sodom and Gomorrah resulted in frequent genocides. For example, often a nomadic tribe would conquer a city-state and its accompanying farming communities. In their conquest the tribe would kill all the inhabitants and destroy the city and culture. Consequently, the advanced technology developed by the city-state would be lost, requiring reinvention. Thus, there may have been many cycles of Stone-to-Copper-to-Bronze-to Iron Ages and a return to the Stone Age.

A third point to consider is the benefit of long life spans. The longer one lives in a healthy state, the more knowledge can be accumulated, applied, and passed on to successive generations. Humans are incredibly curious, inventive, and creative. If all that curiosity, inventiveness, and creativity were permitted to persist in an individual for 900 years, it is difficult to place a limit on what that person could achieve, all the more so if he or she was exceptionally brilliant. To cite a modern-day example, James Clerk Maxwell, physicist and elder of the Church of Scotland, died at age 48 in 1879. In his short life, Maxwell established the modern theories of electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics. Before his death he was on the verge of launching quantum mechanics and relativity. Imagine what he would have achieved had he retained his brilliance and capabilities for another 900 years.

Subjects: Genealogies

Dr. Hugh Ross

Reasons to Believe emerged from my passion to research, develop, and proclaim the most powerful new reasons to believe in Christ as Creator, Lord, and Savior and to use those new reasons to reach people for Christ. Read more about Dr. Hugh Ross.

By my experience, there are fourteen societal parameters that must be minimized through actions of the citizens. If we allow these fourteen parameter to increase, than our freedoms and liberties are at risk. Our privacy is definitely at risk. If privacy is virtually lost
than our free democracy shall be lost, and fascism (dominate influence by corporate America) shall abound. We are becoming a poly oligarchy society; a powerful collection of special interests. From this, there shall be warfare in high places to own your mind or part of your mind.

Orwell’s “1984” fiction novel which have “Big Brother” and the “thought police” is moving into reality. When 911 occurred, and Bush announced that we are now under a new world order implied that the social machinery was in place and working; that was the beginning. When the social machinery comes into fruition our lives shall be controlled quite differently. God shall be outlawed. Big Brother shall become our parents; thereafter, becoming our god. The mark of the beast shall manifest, and no one can transact for necessities without the mark.

THE FOURTEEN SOCIAL PARAMETERS:

1. Castration of the targeted individual:

2. Increased risk to the targeted individual’s life:

3. Overwhelming orchestration of adversity upon targeted individual:

4. Cloath and digger effects on individual:

5. Stealing of original thought from the targeted individual:

6. Destroying self worth of targeted individual:

7. Faces deception of the sophistication kind:

8. Lost of genuineness in daily interactions:

9. Invasion of privacy of the targeted individual:

10. Targeted individual has freedom and liberties severely restricted:

11. Targeted individual in reality doesn’t experience a life in our free democracy:

12. Harassment naturally occurs exponentially:

13. Isolation effect upon targeted individual:

14. Government plays on targeted individuals in the media in order to identify with the people. Targeted persons are scrutinized and selected for groups that shall suffer negatively as determined by the issue; the policy change.

Ephesians 6:12
For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places.

THE BEAST IS COMING SOON
Revelation 13:17; “And that no man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark, or the name of the beast, or the number of his name.”

Revelation 14:9; And the third angel followed them, saying with a loud voice, If any man worship the beast and his image, and receive his mark in his forehead, or in his hand,

Revelation 14:11; And the smoke of their torment ascendeth up for ever and ever: and they have no rest day nor night, who worship the beast and his image, and whosoever receiveth the mark of his name.

Revelation 15:2; And I saw as it were a sea of glass mingled with fire: and them that had gotten the victory over the beast, and over his image, and over his mark, and over the number of his name, stand on the sea of glass, having the harps of God.

Revelation 16:2; And the first went, and poured out his vial upon the earth; and there fell a noisome and grievous sore upon the men which had the mark of the beast, and upon them which worshiped his image.

Revelation 19:20; And the beast was taken, and with him the false prophet that wrought miracles before him, with which he deceived them that had received the mark of the beast, and them that worshiped his image. These both were cast alive into a lake of fire burning with brimstone.

Revelation 20:4; And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them: and I saw the souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had not worshiped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in their hands; and they lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years.

We should fight against the ostracizing affect from all fourteen parameters as fighting a wildfire. Fight to keep the faith because it is our savior; our Preserver; Matthew 6:20 “But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal.” If we all seek God’s Spirit Of Truth then God shall send peace followed by joy. The Beast will come into full fruition within the next 30 years, but is affecting us now; individual by individual.

The social concept of “do unto others as you would do unto your self” must apply increasingly and effectively.

HELP STOP THE MASS KILLERS. Work to decrease the fourteen social parameters, and put the fires out.

The old saying “lace up your boots and step up the latter to success” is fine if the integrity of the latter has not been secretly undermined. 

*** Will Myers

*** Will Myers

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Guest Writer
July 21, 2014
By Dr. Jeff Zweerink

Headline-making discoveries sometimes resemble dramas where a plot can turn at any moment. Thus, some skepticism surfaces when breakthroughs such as two recent ones hit the news. One finding showed that the universe really did undergo inflation––the hypothesized extremely rapid, very early expansion that affirms big bang theory. Another announced the discovery of the long-sought Higgs boson, which fills out the standard model for how the physics of the universe operates.

Here is part of the drama.

Scientists finally found the gravity waves associated with big bang inflation…or did they? Is there only one Higgs…or many? Does the mass of the Higgs mean our universe is unstable or not? Is anything established within all this uncertainty? Well, yes and no!

First, based on a wealth of data, scientists had already thought an epoch of inflation occurred in the earliest moments of the universe. The detection of gravity waves reported by the BICEP-2 (a second generation of the Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization astronomy instrument located at the south pole), if confirmed by future experiments would basically rule out any other option. That would mean inflation happened and the big bang is vindicated. Second, the data from the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)––the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator––points to a single Higgs boson, but planned upgrades should provide a more definitive answer. Third, if the BICEP-2 results hold and a single Higgs exists, the calculations point to an even more fine-tuned universe that is necessary to support life.

Assuming inflation produced gravitational waves (actually the polarization of the cosmic microwave background [CMB]) detected by BICEP-2, the energy density (the stored energy per volume of space) scale during this extremely brief period in the universe’s history resides around the grand unification theory (GUT) scale of 1016 GeV (for reference, the energy density today is 28 orders of magnitude smaller at 10-3 eV). These extreme energies mean the Higgs field experiences significant quantum fluctuations during periods of inflation, pushing it into an unstable region. In this unstable region, the Higgs field will eventually fall to a minimum value, resulting in a universe unsuitable for life and the collapse of the cosmos within a second.1 That false start could have––some would say should have––marked our universe’s history. A top quark mass less than 172 GeV seems to restore stability by precluding the rapid collapse of the universe—a value marginally consistent with scientists’ current best measurements.2

In contrast, some argue that a stable universe introduces other problems because of its long-lived state (much longer than the universe’s age). Eventually, such a universe produces copious Boltzmann brains. With an appropriately fine-tuned value for the top quark mass and Higgs boson mass, the universe decays on a timescale similar to the current lifetime of 13.8 billion years. Such a “short” lifetime eliminates the production of Boltzmann brains.

Assuming the drama is over and we have a complete theory describing all the relevant physics (including the Higgs field, the top quark mass, and inflation), these results point to a fine-tuned universe. A top quark mass too large causes the universe to decay too quickly (meaning we shouldn’t be here now). Too small of a mass means Boltzmann brains exist—a possibility in which we are far more likely to be Boltzmann brains than ordinary beings.

These discoveries once again buttress the scientifically uncontroversial claim that our universe appears designed to support life. Even so, one should remember the tentative nature of these results; they lie at the cutting edge of scientific inquiry. It would not surprise me if science reveals a plot twist ahead and future research will show new physics that might “explain” fine-tuning. But an explanation for fine-tuning does not remove the fact that if our universe were any other way, we would not be here as observers. It’s like watching a creation drama and it simply helps us understand the mechanism God used to fashion a life-sustaining habitat for humanity.

Subjects: Particle Physics

Dr. Jeff Zweerink

While many Christians and non-Christians see faith and science as in perpetual conflict, I find they integrate well. They operate by the same principles and are committed to discovering foundational truths. Read more about Dr. Jeff Zweerink.

Endnotes:
Malcolm Fairbairn and Robert Hogan, “Electroweak Vacuum Stability in Light of BICEP2,” Physical Review Letters 112 (May 23, 2014): 201801.
CMS Collaboration, “Determination of the Top-Quark Pole Mass and Strong Coupling Constant from the ttbar Production Cross Section in pp Collisions at √s = 7 TeV,” Physical Review B 728 (January 20, 2014): 496–517.

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Most people take for granite that they are having thoughts unique to them at the time. We all have thoughts based on our pass encounters and education from our seniors which is a potential without the massiveness of persons. This is very different from persons manifesting in our impression as the person who told you such a thing; thereby, immediately destroying original thoughts of the subject.

Circumstances that override original thought devalues the subject and eliminates self worth. From this state of mind comes mass killers who are making a statement against society, and punishing society as a whole for destroying their lives.

In order to take over a person’s life; God must be denied in the life of that person. Jesus must be discredited. All faith in God must be eliminated in order to take command over the targeted person because Father God, Son Jesus, and God’s Spirit will always facilitate the truth for your mind that will endure against all others; otherwise, a person can not articulate above the society in which they exist.

Ephesians 6:12; “For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places.”

Matthew 6:20; “But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal:”

The humanist movement now referred to as the new age movement innately has devilish motives. In the end, this movement shall have robbed us of our person freedoms and liberties. The most frightening thought is that they can rob each person of their original thoughts. Plain fact.

Why does the atheist movement hate Christianity? There is no law compelling them to attend worship. There is no law mandating that they read the bible. Atheist and Christians compete for employment on an equal basis. Now, why does the atheist burn when hearing the name Jesus? Jesus stands for God’s love, and died on the cross for the people to receive love from God. Innate to the atheist worldview is a desire to be god, and the only god. Does it make sense that who so ever opposes love and happiness is of the devil; just plain sense.

With God the Lord will give knowledge and utterance that shall give one strengthen to stand against all because God alone shall justify the person. God is perfectly correction and all others are wrong. God shall give the answer and justify you to stand against any oppressive forces in the name of Jesus, the Son of God.

The secular movement of the atheist embraces the social machinery of special interests targeting private citizens, and invading their mind. Mind you, they must remove the protect that God has given to each citizen. The faith not only gives hope during time of despair, but protects from wicket forces who are attempting to invade the inner sanctuary of the mind.

Romans 8:31; “What shall we then say to these things? If God be for you, who can be against you?”

*** Will Myers

JFK assassination: I find it strange that there is so little information about Oswald’s worldview that has not been released. At his age, there should have been hundreds of persons giving quotes from Oswald. His profile should be the size of a set of encyclopedias. Why have all of this potential information or plain evidence been covered up. I suspect that the analysis of this information would implicate some powerful big devils in American politics.

Who influenced Oswald? One person doesn’t decide to kill the President of America out of the clear blue sky. Why was Oswald off the radar and was not checked out by the secret service at the time of JFK’s visit to Dallas? Oswald’s background should have prompted an investigation prior to the President’s visit.

President Eisenhower warned about the military industrialized complex during his administration. This is a very powerful conglomerate who always have strong contacts with the C.I.A., F.B.I., and very influential lobbyist of corporate America; the fascist element of American politics. JFK was for disarmament and worked for a more peaceful world. I believe that this contributed to his assassination. Also, JFK was for peaceful negotiations for oil in the Middle East. Other strong fractions in America wanted to over throw the governments and place those in command who would do the bids of America’s oil interests. Now, we all know which group won. Well, I would be a hypocrite if I didn’t appreciate paying under four dollars per gallon at the pumps while other countries are paying over six dollars per gallon. Although, the JFK assassination just doesn’t sit right with me.

*** Will Myers

My first love was my high school love. In order to protect her privacy and family, I shall refer to her as CC. The Vietnam War caused us to be separated for two years. I was drafted into the military. During this time, since we weren’t engaged, we dated other people. Although, when I was discharged CC was waiting for me, but I had a chip on my shoulders due to CC’s prior relationships. As a result, CC and I broke up, and I felt that I had preserved my manhood and honor.

After the break up I realized that I loved her more than what I thought. You know, you don’t miss your water until the well goes dry. I began to feel superego dead. I had to drop out of college for a semester because I couldn’t concentrate. Every time that I began to study I saw CC walking toward me in the nude, and she was very beautiful naturally. I continued to think that I had held the right position with the CC situation.

I met another beautiful women, and we married. We had one beautiful daughter in whom I would die to save her happiness. Every so often, I felt the pain of losing CC, but I was happy with my wife who I felt was one of the sexiest women on the planet.

Unfortunately, the proverbial storm of life hit me hard and fast as we neared America’s bicentennial birthday. I was castrated; robbed of my livelihood, and faced continual negative orchestrations upon my person; denying me of any successful career or happy life. The storm was deliberately caused, and this hurt me more than the actual experiences.

After years of painful experiences, I became numb to bad things hurting me like a rock. Although when stress peaked, I lost my ability to taste salt; it tasted like sugar. I think that I was subjected to the highest level of stress every dispensed in America; it was killing me. Ailments and diseases were lined up to effect my health. I was continually sick and in pain.

One night in my small apartment, I gave up the ghost. I said God I now know the devil and he is never going to do anything good; so, knowing that I don’t deserve you blessings, I want to be your slave just because you are good. Things didn’t right away get better; they got worst!

I continued to talk to the Lord. Every thought or act that I did which I thought was bad, I apologized to God. I quickly ran through my major sins, repenting for each to the Lord. Then, the Lord brought to mind CC. I quickly apologized about my arrogance, self pride, and selfishness in regards to CC. The Lord brought to my mind that I was so dumb until I listened to the devil who knows no love. This left me in a fetal position on the floor.

I had one plus remaining, and that was I returned from the war a well learned man. During the next three weeks each time I returned to my apartment I talked to the Lord. I wanted to come to a conclusion with the Lord. It wasn’t happening. I could not appease the Lord when it came to CC. We had arrived at I gave you CC as a love; not the devil. You didn’t even know me, and listened to the devil concerning CC. And, finally the kicker came; you knew nothing when you returned from the war because you knew God not. I was ready to concede. I agreed, and immediately felt all worth drain from my mind and body. The Lord kept bringing to my mind that He gave me CC because it was love, and love comes only from God, my Father.

A few days passed, and I began to feel a lift as yeast raises bread. I felt a lift from the pit of hell where I had been. As things became better in the name of the Lord Jesus, I asked the Lord, why are you helping a slave. He said plain as day, you choose me so I choose you. I thought now I know you Lord, and you don’t have to be a rocket science to know your noble ways. Jesus is love.

I had known the scripture, God is love, since being a little boy, and still didn’t know the supreme nature of love. All material possessions are awaiting to be shared with a love. God is more concerned about love than sin.

*** Will Myers

1 John 4:8; “He that loveth not knoweth not God; for God is love.”

In theoretical physics a huge question loom; does the Unified Field Theory have an answer? Can the five forces of nature, gravity, electronic, magnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear, be represented by one force? Einstein succeeded in conflating the electronic and magnetic forces with some success with the gravitational force during his 17 years quest.

Some scientist believe that if the leading genius in theoretical physics couldn’t success in 17 years, than the answer doesn’t exist. I sincerely think that the formulation won’t be codified, but remain a potential which can be expressed by quantum mechanics, the science of probability. I think that the ultimate example is that God can not be represented by a whole image, and remain a Potentiality. Potentials can best be represented by probabilities.

Genesis 33:10; “And Jacob said, Nay, I pray thee, if now I have found grace in thy sight, then receive my present at my hand: for therefore I have seen thy face, as though I had seen the face of God, and thou wast pleased with me.” In this scripture Jacob stating “as though” I had seen the face of God. What Jacob experience with a Potentiality of God.

Einstein stated that he wanted to know the thoughts of the Creator. I am sure that he hear a lot of thoughts, but couldn’t discern the whole image.

High speed computer technology is adaptive to quantum mechanics more than the Determinate Worldview of physics. Some equations which previously would take 100 years to calculate now takes only seconds leading toward the Determinate Worldview of Einstein until physicist delve into the reality of the very ultra minute world of physics. Those endeavors require quantum mechanics mostly. Quantum Mechanics would be the best investigative tool by far.

I believe that a negative can not be proved; so, I believe that there is a possibility that some physics genius will solve the Unified Field Theory problem, but there is a small possibility. If so, than the application to astronomy on the massive scale would lend itself to the Unified Field tool for investigation.

*** Will Myers

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July 17, 2014
By Dr. Fazale Rana

“What? You mean to tell me that Sherlock Holmes wasn’t real!?”

Some fictional characters are so instantiated in our collective psyche that we often think of them as actual people who once lived, though they never did. Based on recent work by researchers from Tel Aviv University in Israel, it appears as if the same may be true in physical anthropology.

While investigating the mystery of human origins, these scientists have come to think that Australopithecus sediba—a recently discovered hominid believed to be a key transitional intermediate leading to modern humans—may well be a fictional species.1

Whether A. sediba is real or fictional has huge implications for how anthropologists think humans evolved and also highlights just how speculative the ideas in human evolution can be.

Image credit: Phiston/Wikimedia/Creative Commons

In 2011, a research team from the University of Witwatersrand, led by paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, created quite a bit of excitement when they presented a detailed anatomical analysis of the newly discovered A. sediba.2 These researchers first reported on their discovery in the spring of 2010, after Berger and his 9-year-old son stumbled upon two partial hominid skeletons while exploring Malapa Cave (South Africa).3 Excavations revealed the remains may have been from a juvenile male and an adult female. The hominids were initially dated between 1.78 and 1.95 million years in age. More careful dating places the remains at 1.977 million years old.

The Malapa fossils are well preserved and remarkably complete compared to most hominid finds, allowing paleontologists to perform a detailed anatomical analysis of the specimens. A. sediba represents an enigma. Overall it looks like an australopithecine. It has a small brain and long arms, designed for movement through trees. Yet, analysis of the A. sediba skulls indicate that this animal’s brain structure is distinct with unusual features in the frontal lobe. Moreover, A. sediba’s pelvis and ankle joints look like they should belong to the genus Homo. The A. sediba hand is interesting, too. It appears designed for high precision manipulation of objects, like a Homo hand, with a long thumb and short fingers.

Berger and his colleagues believe that their discovery uproots conventional views of human evolution. They argue that A. sediba supplants “Lucy” (Australopithecus afarensis) as the transitional intermediate that gave rise to Homo habilis and which, in turn, gave rise to Homo erectus. In fact, they believe that A. sediba is the direct ancestor to H. erectus, not H. habilis. This interpretation renders H. habilis an evolutionary dead end.

But Berger’s interpretation, shared by many paleoanthropologists, may not be correct. In fact, the problem may be more serious than where to place A. sediba in the human evolutionary tree. According to Ella Been and Yoel Rak, physical anthropologists from Tel Aviv University, A. sediba may not even be an actual species. Been and Rak carefully studied the spine and jaw of the A. sediba remains and concluded that the fossil finds consist of four individuals, not just a juvenile male and adult female as Berger thought. Instead of representing a single species, the fossils come from two separate genera: Australopithecus and Homo. The Tel Aviv anthropologists argue that the fossil remains from these four individuals have been jumbled together, thus giving the impression they represent a distinct species (sediba) with the mosaic characteristics expected for a transitional form. In other words, A. sediba may be a fictional hominid.

Ironically, shortly after A. sediba was discovered in 2010 another species, Homo gautengensis, was also unearthed in South Africa.4 This creature, too, dates to about 2 million years in age, and may well be the oldest member of the Homo genus. The scientists who discovered H. gautengensis claim its coexistence with A. sediba makes it unlikely that A. sediba could be the transitional form linking the australopithecines to Homo.

In communications with the general public, the central ideas associated with human evolution are often portrayed as certain and well supported by the fossil record. Yet, further analysis of A. sediba suggests otherwise. In reality, paleoanthropologists have no idea how many hominids existed or how these creatures relate to each other in an evolutionary sense. Nor do they know which hominids are truly part of the presumed evolutionary pathway that led to modern humans. With all this uncertainty, some measure of skepticism about human evolution is justified.

Subjects: Lucy and Other Hominids

Dr. Fazale Rana

In 1999, I left my position in R&D at a Fortune 500 company to join Reasons to Believe because I felt the most important thing I could do as a scientist is to communicate to skeptics and believers alike the powerful scientific evidence—evidence that is being uncovered day after day—for God’s existence and the reliability of Scripture. Read more about Dr. Fazale Rana

References
For a popular-level treatment of this discovery see: Colin Barras, “Human ‘Missing Link’ Fossils May Be Jumble of Species,” New Scientist, posted April 9, 2014, http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229643.200-human-missing-link-fossils-may-be-jumble-of-species.html#.U34fXij5HHM.
Fred Spoor, “Malapa and the Genus Homo,” Nature 478 (October 6, 2011): 44–45; Ann Gibbons, “Skeletons Present an Exquisite Paleo-Puzzle,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1370–72; Kristian J. Carlson et al., “The Endocast of MH1, Australopithecus sediba,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1402–7; Job M. Kibii et al., “A Partial Pelvis of Australopithecus sediba,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1407–11; Tracy L. Kivell et al., “Australopithecus sediba Hand Demonstrates Mosaic Evolution of Locomotor and Manipulative Abilities,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1411–17; Bernhard Zipfel et al., “The Foot and Ankle of Australopithecus sediba,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1417–20; Robyn Pickering et al., “Australopithecus sediba at 1.977 Ma and Implications for the Origins of the Genus Homo,” Science 333 (September 9, 2011): 1421–23.
Lee R. Berger et al., “Australopithecus sediba: A New Species of Homo-Like Australopith from South Africa,” Science 328 (2010): 195–204.
D. Curnoe, “A Review of Early Homo in Southern Africa Focusing on Cranial, Mandibular and Dental Remains, with the Description of a New Species (Homo gautengensis sp. nov.),” HOMO – Journal of Comparative Human Biology 61 (June 2010): 151–

THE LEGAL SYSTEM OF AMERICA is becoming as ragged as a barrel of kraut. One drug offender gets a 6 months sentence while another get life without parole for the same degree of offence. A wife fire her gun over the head of her abusive husband to stop his assault in their home, and get a 20 year sentence, but the stand your ground law found killer of Treyvon Martin innocent.

Soft targets of the police are the nickel and dime dealers who get their product from the rich. They arrest and prosecute these nickel and dime street dealers that places a large tax burden on the tax payers. These arrest and imprisonment has no impact on the drug trade.

The hard targets who are the rich importers of drugs using boats and airplanes which would make a difference if stopped are avoided because of the repercussions from the high profile lawyers that they can afford. The police chief doesn’t want to lose his job. As a results, the legal system is imposing long unjust punishment on the nickel and dime people while filling the prisons and causing many more to be built. The legal system no longer display common sense.

The crazy thing is that if drugs are allowed to run freely (I promote not drugs; only a practical example) without prosecution American society would improve greatly. The legal system is causing a huge criminal problem and not reducing the problem. After all, a determination was made to make certain drugs illegal because of the negative anticipated effect on society (most are exaggerated). So, policing should not produce a worsted effect on society.

John 5:30;
“I can of mine own self do nothing: as I hear, I judge: and my judgment is just; because I seek not mine own will, but the will of the Father which hath sent me.”

We must not allow for the youth to loss faith in our legal system because where there is no justice there is no peace.

*** Will Myers